Read: The Great World Atlas

Countries of the world are classified by the "The Reader's Digest Great World Atlas" below. The book is prepared and published by the Reader's Digest Association Limited and was planned under the direction of Frank Debenham, Emeritus Professor of Geography (Cambridge University).

The book shows these sections: the Arctic, Eurasia, Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, South America, Australasia, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and the Antarctic, among others.

It points out that Jerusalem is the center of all nations and countries, and the world itself is a flat disc surrounded by oceans of water. So the monks and map-makers, of the Middle Ages saw the world they lived in.

The Stars and Moons

Stars and moons of the earth manifest God's Omnipotence.

When we look at the stars we are looking back deep into the past. We see them, not as they are now, but often as they were hundreds of years ago. They travel together and vary greatly in size.

Myths and legends are made up from the stars and man has given them names of animals, heroes, gods and goddesses.

The moon is the only satellite comparable to the earth's size. Astronaut Neil Armstrong and B. Aldrin rode Apollo 11 and landed on the moon in 1969. There is no life on the moon. Once thought to be seas, plains on the moon are called "Mare Imbrium" (Sea of Rains) and "Oceanus Procellarum" (Ocean of Storms) though in fact the moon is entirely without water.

The moon is without atmosphere, its gravity being too weak to hold down gas in any quantity. Moon rotates only once each time it travels around the earth. Since the moon spins slowly, its "day" lasts about two weeks, and it's followed by two weeks of night.

Myths tell that as stars lie in the bright girdle of the Milky Way, it was the road along which the souls of the dead traveled to heaven. And on the moon, were thrown exiles of lives for reformation.

Now, the earth continues to grow older and better, but like life soon the sun and its family (9 major planets: Earth, Mars, Uranus, Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Nepture, Pluto) will come to a halt. Man has to find ways to save Mother Earth and make life longer and worthwhile for all creations. The Book of Genesis and chapters from the Bible (old testament) will tell more about the beginning of the universe and life.

Becoming A Booklover

Having something to do for you to be relieved from the busy and hassle life is a great reward that you can give for yourself. If you are thinking of going far and giving yourself a space to breathe, then you can do so. But one thing that you can do free yourself from exhausting day you can read a good book. Yes, aside from the fact that it will enrich your mind; a book can also be a therapeutic hobby that you can engage into. Loving book and reading can be learned, all it takes is for you to know how to develop your passion for reading.

To be a book fanatic you should discover your interest. Go over some books and read some summaries of those reading materials. Choose the one that will ignite your interest in reading, do not just grab a book without even scanning it. This would be a waste of time and money for you. You can also start by picking a book with the same movie genre that you like. If you like drama and romance, you can choose to have a romance novel, if you like science fiction or adventure, for sure there are hundreds of books with the equivalent of your favorite movie. You can also join book clubs; groups like this encourage a healthy reading habit for their members. They also recommend books for their members to read. There are specialty book clubs as well, where they concentrate in one genre.

If you already have that interest you, find a place where you can sit down and read it. Do not force yourself to read something that you do not like. Make reading a habit; read at least an hour a day and you will end up reading many books than you expect. Exchange books with your friends; this will not just enrich your vocabulary but will also make your friendship bond stronger. Having a friend that is also an avid fan of reading will always be good influence. You can also make your family member engage in reading and you can also make them a bookworm.

Textbooks at Subsidized Prices

College students in the present-day are greatly benefited by the availability of textbooks at affordable or subsidized prices. Reduction of the prices of textbooks meant for colleges, especially for the students is a practice that is of immense help to cash strapped college students all over the world, who generally do not have enough money to pay for textbooks. Some schools offer the sale of books at discounted or reduced prices, for college students, during a specific season, while other colleges offer such facilities throughout the year. There are certain discount bookshops inside schools, which offer these facilities for students only. Furthermore, these facilities are only available for students of the particular school, and not for students of other schools.

Obtaining textbooks at subsidized prices is like a dream come true for students who would rather not spend money uselessly of expensive books, and would instead rather spend money on food, drinks, clothes and partying, the four pillars of an existence in college. Most college students wouldn't spend even a fraction of the money that they spend of having fun, and merrymaking, in buying a single college book. Most others would be content with buying a single college book, and while very few would buy more than one textbook.

College textbooks at subsidized rates are nothing short of dream come true for higher education students. Used and second-hand college textbooks are very popular among students, especially those who are short on funds and pocket-money. Photocopied versions of books may also be obtained by the college student. Contrary to popular belief, the cause of education is served to a great extent by the availability of college textbooks at affordable or subsidized or reduced prices. This is of great importance in the present-day as most students do not have the means to acquire expensive college textbooks.

Rare Textbooks for Sale

There are a number of rare, out of print textbooks that a number of people would kill to lay their hands on. These textbooks are really helpful for college students who are majoring in a particular subject and need to have a holistic idea of the subject concerned. More often than not, it is very difficult for a college student to lay their hands on a textbook that is rare, or an edition that is out of print. College students generally are not very well off when it comes to funds. So, what do they do in such a situation? Buying used or old text books is the solution to all the woes of a college student. A student in college would party, rather than spend lots of money buying an expensive textbook for college.

Another solution to this problem lies in the publication of low-price editions specifically meant for college students. The publication of low-price editions in paperback can help to dramatically reduce the price of hard back text book editions. Rare text books can be purchased from the internet, as interested parties who do not require such text books any more would gladly give them away for whatever price they can get, and the college students or whoever wants to buy the rare textbook, can buy in through the medium of the internet, using certain online marketing websites. For the services that they offer, the websites only take a small percentage of the transaction proceeds, which does not affect the transaction effectively.

Giant Panda: Bamboo Feeder

Giant panda is a bear which is native to central-western and southern-western China and is easily recognizable by its large distinct black patches around the eyes, ears and across the body. Although it belongs to the order Carnivora but its diet chiefly consists of about 99% bamboo. In the wild they feed on grasses, wild tubers and even meat in the form of carrion. In captivity they are fed on honey, yams, eggs, fish, bananas, oranges and leaves of the shrubs. Due to deforestation and habitat destruction the natural habitats of the Giant Panda are under threat. It is now considered as an endangered species.

The body of the animal is clothed with black and white fur. Adults are 1.5 meters long and 75 cm tall at the shoulder. Males weigh about 150 kg and the females weigh about 125 kg. The body shape is quite typical in comparison to other bears. It has black coat on the ears, eyes, muzzle, legs, arms and shoulders. Rest of the colour of the body is white. The fur keeps the body warm even when it is cool outside. The molar is large and the jaw muscles are strong enough for tearing the tough bamboo. The animal bears paws provided with a thumb and five fingers. The thumb is actually the modified sesamoid bone which is used for holding the bamboo. The tail of Giant Panda is the second longest tail in the bear family measuring 10-15 cm. sloth bear has the longest tail. The average lifespan is of 20 years in wild but 30 years in captivity. In the wild the animal spends most of its time roaming and feeding on bamboo. Although they spend their life alone but are known to form territories and the female of one group do not interferes with the other. They communicate with each other through vocalization or through scent markings like spraying of urine or clawing trees. They are very well adapted to take shelter in the hollows of trees or in rock crevices but do not use these areas permanently. As they don't have permanent shelters they do not hibernate like other mammals in the colder weather. They rely on spatial memory rather than the visual memory. The courting behaviour is very brief. After mating the male leaves the female to deliver the cub alone.

Despite of the order Carnivora the animal is strictly herbivorous. The digestive system is built on the same pattern like that of the carnivores. It gets little protein and energy from the bamboo. The ability of Giant Panda to digest cellulose is due to the presence of microbes in the gut. The average animal is known to consume 9-14 kg of bamboo shoots in a day. Since the animal feeds on a low energy diet it keeps its digestive tract full. Diet affects the behaviour of the animal. Its large size and rounded face are the adaptations towards the bamboo diet. With the help of next-generation sequencing technology the genome of the Giant Panda has been sequenced in 2009. The genome has 20 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosome. They are endangered animals and are kept under supervision both in the wild as well as in captivity. Wolong National Nature Reserve was set up in 1958 in order to save this animal. By the end of 2006 there were 40 panda reserves established in China.

What Are Hookworms?

Hook worm is a parasitic nematode which is found in the small intestine of its host which may be a mammal like dog, cat or human. Two species of nematodes are known to infect humans and these are Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. The former is found commonly in the Middle East, India, northern Africa and southern Europe while the latter is found in the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, China and Indonesia. Hookworms are known to infect more than 600 million people all over the world. Hookworms are smaller in size as compared to the larger roundworms and the infestation of roundworm is less than the infection of the hookworm. The most significant risk of the hookworm infection is anemia followed by loss of iron from the gut. The worms are known to suck the blood continuously and damage the intestinal mucosa. However, the loss of blood in the faeces is not visibly apparent. The disease caused by Ancylostoma duodenale is known as ancylostomiasis which is characterized by severe anemia as iron is lost and blood is lost by continuous blood sucking habit of the parasite. Hookworm is responsible for the leading cause of maternal child morbidity in the tropical and subtropical countries. In susceptible children they cause intellectual, cognitive and growth retardation, intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity and low birth weight. Death because of the infection is rare but anemia is very intense in the infected individual.

No specific signs and symptoms are known for the hookworm infection. Invasion of the skin by the larvae may cause intense itching particularly in the areas of foot and legs and sometimes lesions similar to that of insect bite may be formed which lasts for a week or more. Coughing, sneezing and fever may result in those individuals in whom large number of larvae enters the body. Signs of intense infection are anemia, protein deficiency, emaciation, cardiac failure and abdominal distension with ascites. A. duodenale worms are grayish-white or pink with the head slightly bent in comparison to rest of the body. This bent forms a hook shaped structure and this is the reason why the worms are named as hookworms. Mouth is well developed with two pairs of teeth. Males are smaller in comparison to that of the females and measure about 1 cm in length. Males can be distinguished from the females by the presence of a characteristic copulatory bursa present at posterior end of the body. N. americanus is somewhat smaller than A. duodenale with males measuring 5-9 mm long and the females about 1 cm long. They have only a single pair of cutting plates in the buccal capsule. Hook is much more prominent in these animals.

Eggs of both the species are found in warm and moist soil where they hatch into the first stage larvae or L1. L1 is a feeding and non-infective stage known as rhabditiform larvae which feeds on soil microbes and ultimately transforms into the second larval stage or L2. The L2 is also known as rhabditiform larvae and they feed for about 7 days and then get transformed into the third larval stage or L3 or the filariform larvae. This stage is the non-feeding and infective stage of the parasite. They are extremely motile and wait in search of human host to penetrate their skin. They can survive for about 2 weeks without the host. The larvae of N. americanus are known to infect humans only by penetrating through the skin while the larvae of A. duodenale can infect humans by skin penetration as well as by oral route. After the successful entry of the L3 in the human host it passes through the subcutaneous venules and well as the lymphatic vessels. They finally enter the lungs through the pulmonary capillaries and break out into alveoli. Then they enter the trachea and are coughed and swallowed by the host. Finally they enter the small intestine of the host where they moult and become adults. The whole process form the penetration of the skin till the development of the adult takes about 5-9 weeks. After mating the female starts releasing the eggs which are passed out with the faeces of the host. After entering the soil the eggs will hatch into the larvae and the whole cycle will be repeated. The incubation period varies from weeks to months depending upon the number of hookworms entered in the human host.

Red Panda: An Arboreal Mammal

Red panda is slightly larger than the domestic cat is an arboreal mammal and is the only species of the genus Ailurus. They are characterized by the presence of reddish-brown fur, long and shaggy tail and waddling gait as the front legs are short. The chief food of the animal is bamboo but is omnivore as it also feeds on eggs, fish, birds, insects and small mammals depending upon the circumstances. They are solitary and are active from dawn to the dusk and largely sedentary during the day. They are widely distributed in the temperate forests of Himalayas, Nepal and China. Also found in northern India, Bhutan and northern Myanmar. According to an estimate the population of these animals may be from 2,500-20,000 at present. They are well protected under the laws of different countries as they are at risk because of poaching and habitat destruction. It has been classified as vulnerable according to the IUCN re list in 2009. Two subspecies are known today. It is quite adaptable to live in captivity and is very commonly noticed in the zoos. More than 800 individuals have been observed to dwell in the zoos all over the world.

The taxonomic classification of red panda is controversial from the time when it was discovered first. Evidences based on serology, reproduction, karyology, anatomy and behaviour shows resemblance more towards Procyonidae than Ursidae. However, the feeding habits and geographical distribution points towards the need of a separate family. Recent molecular-systematic DNA technique has confirmed that they must be classified in a separate family. Now they are a part of family Ailuridae. There are two subspecies of red panda at present. The first one is the Western Red Panda living in the west of its range like Nepal and Bhutan and the second is the Styan's Red Panda living in the east of its range like China and Myanmar. Styan's Red Panda is larger and darker in colour than the western fellow. The colour variation is very frequent in both the subspecies and shades of yellow and brown are very common apart from red.

Red panda is considered as a living fossil and is distantly related to Giant Panda. It is believed that they first originated during the Tertiary period about 10 million years ago in Eurasia. Fossils have been found in China and Britain. It lives at an altitude of 2,200-4,800 meters inhabiting areas of moderate temperature change. It prefers mixed deciduous and coniferous forests especially with dense old trees and understories of bamboo. The head and body of the animal is 56-63 cm long and the tail measures about 35-47 cm. males weigh about 3.7-6.2 kg and females 4.2-6 kg. it has long, soft and reddish brown fur on the undersides, blackish fur on the lower parts and light face with tear markings and robust dental-cranial features. The face also bears white markings which resemble with that of the raccoons. The rounded head has soft and upright ears, black nose and very dark eyes. The tail is long and bushy with six alternate reddish transverse ochre rings which provided balance to the body and is also a source of camouflage. The legs are black with short thick fur on the paws. The fur provides insulation when the animal has to face snow covered conditions and also conceals the scent glands present on the anus.

Red panda is specialized for feeding bamboo shoots and is blessed with strong, curved, sharp and semi-retractile claws for holding the bamboo twigs. Like the Giant Panda it also bears a false thumb which is an extension of the wrist bone. It has been reported that they are nocturnal to crepuscular, sleeping on tree branches and hollows of logs and become active in the late afternoon or the evening hours. It sleeps on the branches with legs dangling down when it is hot and tail curled over the face when it is cold. It is heat sensitive and can survive within the temperature range of 17-25°C in summers but cannot tolerate temperature above 25°C. After walking for a short distance the animal is known to clean its fur in the same manner as done by the cat, licks it paws, cleans its tail, stomach and the sides of the body. It marks its territory by the musk like secretion of the scent glands as well as by spraying urine. It searches the food in the dark by running and climbing on the trees. Front paw is used for passing food towards the mouth. Red panda is territorial and the adults are solitary except for the mating season. It is generally a quite animal but uses twittering and whistling sounds for communicating with other fellows. The predators of this animal are snow leopard, martens and humans. If the animal is frightened it climbs over the trees or uses its front paws for defence.